The Controversy of Clinical Versus Actuarial Prediction Essay Example

The Controversy of Clinical Versus Actuarial Prediction Essay Example The Controversy of Clinical Versus Actuarial Prediction Paper The Controversy of Clinical Versus Actuarial Prediction Paper In clinical prediction, psychologists use their clinical experience to formulate a prediction based on interview impressions, history ATA and test scores (Melee, Clinical versus Statistical 4). The formula in the title refers to statistical or actuarial prediction. In actuarial prediction, clergies access a chart or table which gives the statistical frequencies of behaviors (Actuarial Prediction). Advocates of the clinical method say that clinical prediction Is dynamic, meaningful and sensitive but actuarial prediction Is mechanical, rigid and artificial (Melee, Clinical versus Statistical 4). On the other hand, advocates of the actuarial method claim that actuarial method Is empirical, precise and objective but alnico prediction Is unscientific, vague and subjective (Melee, Clinical versus Statistical 4). The controversy of clinical versus actuarial judgment is not limited to the field of psychology; it also affects education in terms of predicting school performance, criminal justice system in terms of parole board decisions and business in terms of personnel selection. Although this controversy can be traced back half a century ago, social scientists today are still asking: Which of the two methods works better? Can we view any prediction dichotomously as either clinical or actuarial? And, if actuarial predictions are more accurate, should we abandon clinical predictions all together? On one side of the controversy, some people feel that using mere numbers to determine whether students can enter graduate schools or whether prisoners should be released Is dehumidifying (Melee, Causes and Effects 374). In her book about social psychology, Thompson describes a young woman who complains that It Is horribly unfair that she has been rejected by the Psychology Department at university of California on the bases of mere numbers, without even n interview (88). When my psychology teacher surveyed our class on this issue, about 20 percent of students believe that it is unethical to make predictions based on mere numbers (Brenner). The crux of this ethical concern lies on the belief that each individual is so unique that rigid statistics or equations cannot make the correct prediction in every single case. Indeed, most psychologists agree that rigid statistics are not sensitive to special cases. Paul Mà ªlà ©es well-known broken-leg example Illustrates how the special powers of the clinician can predict behaviors ore accurately in some special cases: If a sociologist were predicting whether Professor X would go to the movies on a certain night, he might have an equation Involving age, academic specialty, and Introversion score. The equation might yield [a very high probability] that Professor X will go to the movie tonight. But if Professor X Ana Just Darken Nils leg Ana en Is In a nil cast Tanat wont NT In a denature seat, no sensible sociologist would stick with the equation. (Clinical versus Statistical 24-25) Essentially, it is very important for clinicians to detect the characteristics of each unique individual and make predictions accordingly because clinicians deal with individual cases; they make predictions for each unique individual, not for a group of people. Thus, it is the individual case that defines the clinician (Melee, Clinical versus Statistical 25). Because of the insensitivity of statistics to special cases and the importance of predicting individual cases, many psychologists argue that statistics simply cannot apply to individuals (Melee, Causes and Effects 374). They believe that clinicians can make predictions about individuals can transcend the predictions bout people in general (Melee, Causes and Effects 374). For example, Patriots emphasized in his research on personality inventory that: In [nonproductive] tests, the results of every individual examination can be interpreted only in terms of direct, descriptive, statistical data and, therefore, can never attain accuracy when applied to individuals. Statistics is a descriptive study of groups, not of individuals. (633) On the other side of controversy, advocates of the actuarial approach have questioned the logic behind the assumption that statistics do not apply to single individuals or events. Stanchion uses a very good analogy to illustrate the fallacy behind this assumption (179). He asks us whether we want our operation done by an experienced surgeon who has a low failure probability or an inexperienced surgeon who has a high failure probability (179). Of course, any rational man will choose the experienced surgeon. However, if we believe that probabilities do not apply to the single case, we should not mind to have our operation done by the inexperienced surgeon. This question brings us to think about the role of chance in making reductions. Stanchion noted: Reluctance to acknowledge the role of chance when trying to explain outcomes in the world can actually decrease our ability to predict real-world events Acknowledging that our predictions will be less than 100 percent accurate can actually help us to increase our overall predictive accuracy. (175) An experiment done by Fainting and Subsidiaries (58-63) demonstrates Stanchions last point that we must accept error in order to reduce error. In this experiment, the participant sits in front of a red light and a blue light and is asked to predict which eight will be flashed on each trial (60). The experimenter has programmed so that the red light will flash 70 percent of the time and the blue light 30 percent of the time (59). Participants quickly pick up the fact that the red light is flashing more, thus they predict the red light roughly 70 percent of the time and the blue light roughly 30 percent of the time (62). The problem is that they do not understand that if they give up on trying to predict correctly on every trial, they can actually be more accurate. We can demonstrate the logic of this situation through a calculation on 100 trials. In 70 of the 100 trials, the red light will come on and the participant will be correct on about 70 percent of those 70 trials. That means, in 49 of the 70 trials (70 times . 70), the participant will correctly predict that red light will flash. In the same way, we can calculation that approximately in 9 trials (30 times . 30), the participant will correctly predict that the blue light will flash. Therefore, the participant can only predict correctly 58 percent of the time (49 percent from the red light and 9 percent from the (B). However, IT ten participant simply gives up on getting every trial relent Ana just predicts the red light on every trial, he can predict correctly 70 percent of the time (because the red light will come on 70 percent of the time), which is 12 percent better than switching back and forth trying to get right on every trial. This is what Stanchion means by accepting error in order to reduce error. Research on this controversial issue has consistently indicated that actuarial prediction is more accurate than clinical prediction. In Paul Mà ªlà ©es classical book Clinical versus Statistical Prediction, he had reviewed 22 studies comparing clinical and actuarial prediction (83-126). Out of these 22 studies, twenty show that actuarial prediction is more accurate than clinical prediction. These twenty studies cover almost all the clinical prediction domain, including psychotherapy outcome, criminal recidivism, college graduation rates, parole behavior and length of psychiatric hospitalizing. A graduate student at JIBE had also done a study comparing clinical and actuarial prediction (Simmons 3). In this study, Simmons compared the predictions made by a regression equation and by two experienced counselors on the school performance of JIBE freshmen (Simmons 3). The results again indicate the actuarial prediction using the regression equation was more accurate (Simmons 64). In addition, a recent meta-analysis using 136 studies has also confirmed that actuarial prediction is better regardless of the Judgment task, type of Judges, or Judges amount of experience (Grove et al. 9). Researchers found that actuarial prediction substantially outperformed clinical prediction in 45 percent of the studies whereas clinical prediction was more accurate in only 10 percent of the studies (19). Regarding the research consistently showing that actuarial prediction is more accurate , Paul Melee said, There is no controversy in social science which shows such a large body of qualitatively diverse studies coming out so uniformly in the same direction as this one (373-374). Mà ªlà ©es actuarial stance is strongly challenged by Robert R. Holt, who is also a renowned clinical psychologist. Holt criticizes that the twenty studies Melee cited in his book only focus on the final step of the prediction-making process, which is making the prediction (339). Holt rejects the dichotomous classification of studies as clinical or statistical because in field settings, clinicians do not simply make a prediction by evaluating the given data (338). In field settings, before the clinician can make the prediction, he has to carefully identify the criterion he can predict and choose predictive variables he wants to use. (Holt 339-340). For example, if a counselor wants to predict the school performance of first year university dents, he first identifies the criterion he is able to predict; the criterion can be Gaps or average marks of the students, but it can also be the students lecture attendances. He also has to choose which predictive variables he should use; he may use the students entrance grades or their scores on an aptitude test or a combination of both. Then, finally, he can make the prediction using either an equation or his own Judgment. This example shows that even if the clinician uses actuarial approach in the final step of the prediction-making process, he still plays an important role in all the preceding steps. I agree with Holt that Melee has oversimplified the distinction between clinical and statistical prediction. I believe that we should view these two methods as falling on a continuum rather than make an all-or-none distinction. Some predictions that can be completely done on computers are more statistical toner protections, Tort wanly psychoanalysts need to collect Ana analyze data, are more clinical. I also agree with Holt that we should still value clinical judgment although it is not as accurate. Without clinical Judgment, scientists will to be able to form hypotheses and theories, and to analyze research results and data. Like Western and Weinberg said in their article reviewing this controversial issue, try as we might to eliminate subjectivity in science, we can never transcend the fact that the mind of scientists, clinicians or informants is the source of much of what we know (609). Nevertheless, when countless research findings point toward one direction, I think we should recognize that actuarial predictions are more accurate than clinical predictions (at least in the final step of the prediction-making recess). Some people think that using mere numbers to make predictions is dehumidifying. They feel that using an equation to forecast a persons action is treating the individual like a white rat or an inanimate object (Melee Causes and Effects 374). However, I argue that in certain cases, it is unethical to use clinical judgment when actuarial approach has shown to be accurate. For example, when a clinical psychologist makes a prediction about whether a student is going to commit suicide within a year, would it be more ethical to use the actuarial prediction that is here times more accurate than the clinical prediction (Brook et al. 03)? The answer to this question should be as obvious as the question about whether we want our operation done by an experienced or an inexperienced surgeon. By admitting that actuarial Judgment is more accurate, clinicians who engage in activities in the role of experts and imply that they have unique clinical knowledge of individual cases may lose prestige and income; however, the field of psychology, and society, will benefit if we underst and that accepting error is reducing error.

Free Essays on The Decision

The Decision Ernest Hemingway’s â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† is a despondent portrait of a relationship at the point of dissolution. It’s a picture of two people who are at the brink of a decision that will effect the rest of their lives. To the girl, the decision will be life altering. To the man, the decision is simple. However, for one of them this decision will mean a new found freedom; for the other it will mean a new beginning. The man in the story has no name and is referred to as the â€Å"American.† He has a girlfriend he refers to as â€Å"Jig.† There is no real seriousness to their relationship. All they do is travel from place to place drinking and looking at scenery. They have never been confronted with any decisions other than what kind of alcohol to drink. Suddenly they are confronted with a life altering decision. The decision is whether to keep the baby or to abort the baby, which Jig is pregnant with. While kicking back a few drinks, they begin to discuss their decision. The â€Å"American† tries to assure â€Å"Jig† this is a â€Å"simple operation.† He tries to reassure her that it’s â€Å"not an operation at all.† Even though he has told her not to worry about it and that it’s no big deal, she still feels it is a big deal. He does not want to be weighed down with excess baggage, which he feels the baby is. They have been happy up until now; if they get rid of the baby he feels they will be happy once again. As the couple discusses their situation, the girl begins to distract herself by focusing on lush scenery. Even though she is unsure if she wants to go through with the abortion, she will do anything to hold on to him. The more they talk about the decision the more heated it becomes. Finally, not being able to talk anymore, she tells him to â€Å"please please please please please please please stop talking.† After that he gets up walks across to the other track to get their â€Å"heavy bags.† When he ... Free Essays on The Decision Free Essays on The Decision The Decision Ernest Hemingway’s â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† is a despondent portrait of a relationship at the point of dissolution. It’s a picture of two people who are at the brink of a decision that will effect the rest of their lives. To the girl, the decision will be life altering. To the man, the decision is simple. However, for one of them this decision will mean a new found freedom; for the other it will mean a new beginning. The man in the story has no name and is referred to as the â€Å"American.† He has a girlfriend he refers to as â€Å"Jig.† There is no real seriousness to their relationship. All they do is travel from place to place drinking and looking at scenery. They have never been confronted with any decisions other than what kind of alcohol to drink. Suddenly they are confronted with a life altering decision. The decision is whether to keep the baby or to abort the baby, which Jig is pregnant with. While kicking back a few drinks, they begin to discuss their decision. The â€Å"American† tries to assure â€Å"Jig† this is a â€Å"simple operation.† He tries to reassure her that it’s â€Å"not an operation at all.† Even though he has told her not to worry about it and that it’s no big deal, she still feels it is a big deal. He does not want to be weighed down with excess baggage, which he feels the baby is. They have been happy up until now; if they get rid of the baby he feels they will be happy once again. As the couple discusses their situation, the girl begins to distract herself by focusing on lush scenery. Even though she is unsure if she wants to go through with the abortion, she will do anything to hold on to him. The more they talk about the decision the more heated it becomes. Finally, not being able to talk anymore, she tells him to â€Å"please please please please please please please stop talking.† After that he gets up walks across to the other track to get their â€Å"heavy bags.† When he ...

Not set, depends on a research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Not set, depends on a research - Essay Example It was this pacified demeanor reinforced in King’s speech that I want to give focus to. The speech is an intense argument that delivers its point to persuade others in the pursuit of the objective that the movement aspires to accomplish. The eloquent call of Dr. King to his people was an inspiration that gave face to the diplomatic crusade of the African-American people. â€Å"Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred† (King). This was meant to be a reminder against the tendency of those who employ the use of violence to call attention to their goal. â€Å"Some of you have come from areas where your quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality† (King). This is also recognition on the tendency of others to be consumed by animosity against those who prejudice their race because of the reality that demonstrations could easily turn vicious. Thi s is not the answer, as he reiterates, to be able to achieve true freedom from the existing racial oppression. Much like the crusade of Mahatma Gandhi and his adherence to uphold a passive resistance, ensuring that there is no bloodshed, Dr. King called for the same. A wrong can never be corrected by another wrong and where a victory is sought and achieved through inequitable means then it is a shallow triumph nonetheless. â€Å"He could not see that the fact that a majority was oppressing a minority, even violently, somehow justified the minority's oppressing the majority by violence in turn. Nor could he see that an oppressive minority should be suppressed by a violent majority† (Steinkraus 104). When we look at it, the success of the Civil Rights Movement is even more admirable in a historical point of view because they were able to change the course of future because of the virtue of the people who led them. This is why Martin Luther King is the first person we associate with racial equality. The event itself was a confirmation of the peaceful face of the movement. There was something on that day extremely different from all the riots that are happening in other parts of the country. The people were very calm and though the number of those present was numerous, there was no tension between the police officers and the demonstrators. There were sharing of food and the people were dressed as though they were going to church. The organizers of the protest kept a working relationship with the officers and there was a system created to ensure that everything was orderly. Some participants even went so far as to prepare 80,000 cheese sandwiches in New York (Lei and Miller 84). Warren Steinkraus in his article, â€Å"Martin Luther King's Personalism and Non-Violence,† explores the development of King’s philosophy from the influence of religion from early on up to his acquaintance with various political and social philosophers that shaped his o wn views. This formation of his own philosophy is significant in understanding how he came to impart his own indelible mark on the Civil Rights Movement. â€Å"King's support of non-violence as a method of social change seems to be derived from his view of the nature of the ultimate ground of existence and the place and importance of finite individuals in the universe†

Vaccines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Vaccines - Essay Example Vaccines stimulate the immune system of the body and helps it recognize the agent as a pathogen or foreign, hence destroying it (Bona and Bonilla, 1996). Vaccines do not offer complete protection of the body against a certain disease; therefore, it is important to choose the most adequate type of vaccine in order to make it more responsive. To develop an effective immune against a dangerous virus, one must consider important aspects, which include the rate of maintaining high immunizations even when the disease is rare. Other factors to be considered include the impact of the immunization campaign on the epidemiology of the disease in the long term and the continuous surveillance of the disease due to the introduction of the new vaccine. An inactivated whole organism vaccine is produced by the killing or destruction of a disease causing organism by use of radiation, heat or chemicals (Reiss, 2005). It has several advantages since it is very stable and safe, which is an advantage over live vaccines, since the inactivated vaccines are killed and cannot mutate back to form the disease causing agent. They are advantageous since they do not require refrigeration hence their storage and transportation is easy, which makes it accessible for people in developing countries. Inactivated vaccines also have the main disadvantage of triggering a weak immune system response; hence several boosters are needed where as live vaccines stimulate a stronger one. This is a major set back to people in areas that are inaccessible to healthcare due to lack of boosters. Another set back is that the nonantigenic portions of the vaccines microbe may cause an inflammatory response to some people. Attenuated whole organism vaccines are live vaccines that contain the living microbe or the modified live viruses which are only weakened in laboratories in order to prevent diseases (Goldsby et al 2000). Viruses are attenuated by growth of generations in cells where they do not reproduce so well , the unsuitable environment makes them repel the viruses. As they grow they become weak due to the new environment and their natural host. They are the closest thing to natural infections hence they are good to the immune system. They stimulate strong antibody and cellular responses, and give lifelong protection with one or two doses. They are easy to create for given diseases like chickenpox. There are several setbacks to this immune system, for example the attenuated vaccines are live so they may revert and cause disease, and people with weakened immune systems for example HIV-positive people cannot use attenuated vaccines for their own protection. Attenuated vaccines need to be refrigerated therefore it is hard to store and transport them to under developed areas. They are difficult to create for bacteria, since bacteria have so many genes, therefore, it is hard to control them. Recombinant vector vaccines are also known as sub-unit vaccines, and are comprised of antigens which elicit the immune system best combined with the DNA of another (Murphy, Walport and Travers, 2008). They are mainly used for complex infections, are experimental and are similar to DNA vaccines though they use bacteria to bring out DNA to the cells in the body. Vector means the virus or a bacterium that is used as the carrier virus latches on to the cell and injects genetic material into the cell. Scientists take the genomes of harmless viruses and insert the genetic material in portions into the cells. The viruses ferry the microbial DNA to the cells. The recombinant vector vaccines cause a natural infection and, therefore, stimulate the immune system. Attenuated bacteria also play the role of vectors, where the genetic mater

Blocking rehearsal time with an interference task Essay Example for Free

Blocking rehearsal time with an interference task Essay The theories of memory and how much, or how long we can remember things, and why, is a greatly studied area of Psychology as a science. Psychologists have created and recreated numerous tests and research methods in order to prove that their particular theory is correct. There are two main theories of memory: Levels of Processing (L.O.P.) and the Multi-store Model.  The L.O.P. approach was pioneered by two psychologist Craik and Lockhart (1972), who believed that the mind will remember things better if the information is processed on a deeper level, ie. thought about more, taking into account the amount of work that is put into processing the information received. From research they discovered that the deeper the processing required the longer and more durable the memory is likely to be. They also identified what they believed to be three levels of processing: Structural What something looks like.  Phonetic What something sounds like.  Semantic What something means.  From experiments and tests carried out, they found that the deepest level was semantic, and their reason for this, they argued, was because in order to extract the meaning from a word, and to consider its relevance in a sentence of words, requires a lot of processing. They decided that hearing a word and then trying to visualize it also requires some extensive cognitive processing, but not as much as semantic processing, and the least amount of mental work was required for structural processing, ie. what the letters look like. A test carried out by Craik and Tulving (1975), Depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory supported their theory. Another model which is highly regarded as one of the most influential theories of memory is the Multi-store model, in particular the two-process model, designed and tested by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, 1971). Their theory was that information received by the senses is primarily stored in the sensory store for a very short period of time before it is transferred to the short term memory. Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that when the information is in the short term memory (STM), it could either be rehearsed for a certain amount of time and then stored in the long term memory (LTM), or alternatively lost. Figure 1.1 illustrates the theory in an easier to understand way. Perhaps this is also an example of how the L.O.P. theory is flawed as although the diagram is seen to be structural information, it will probably provoke strong visual imagery. Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that chunks of information received by the sensory store could be held in the STM for around 20 seconds, but only 5 to 9 (on average) chunks of info can be remembered without rehearsal. However, if rehearsed the chunks of information can be transferred into the long term memory and more items can be remembered. The theory of the rehearsal loop interests me, so I decided to look further into it and found that psychologists: Brown (1958) and Peterson and Peterson (1959) independently discovered a method for testing the existence of the rehearsal loop called the Brown-Peterson technique. This basically involves a list of trigrams (three letter words made up of consonants with no immediate meaning ie. BKD, as apposed to WHY) shown to subjects for 20 seconds, rehearsed for 25 seconds and then recorded in order by the subject as well as possible. The same list is then shown to another subject for the same amount of time, however this time the 25 seconds rehearsal time will be interrupted with an interference task ie. counting backwards in threes from the number 58. This is the technique I will use as a basis of my mini-cognitive research project. AIM:  To test the existence of the rehearsal loop by preventing it from its task with an interference task during the rehearsal time.  RATIONALE:  I will be re-creating the Brown-Peterson technique for testing the existence of the rehearsal loop, although my study will use slightly different trigrams, and obviously a different set of people. Im interested to check whether the results of my study will support the results found by Brown-Peterson or not. I will use a set word list for both groups of people studied and Im expecting the results of my study to support the results of previous tests, thus supporting the theory of existence of the rehearsal loop. HYPOTHESIS:  When asked to recall the list of trigrams in order after a period of 25 seconds rehearsal time, the subject will remember significantly more trigrams if the rehearsal time is not interrupted by an interference task.  NULL HYPOTHESIS:  Subjects taking part in the experiment will not recall a significantly greater number of words whether their rehearsal time is interrupted with an interference task or not. Any difference found is purely down to chance. METHOD:  The method I chose to use in order to obtain the clearest and most reliable data was the laboratory experiment. The reason for using this method is to reduce the amount of extraneous and possibly confounding variables which could interfere with the results; also it becomes very easy to repeat the same test over and over without change. I will use the independent groups design to ensure that different participants are used for each test in order to avoid the chances that the participants will skew the results through rehearsal. The first set of participants will be shown a list of 15 trigrams for 20 seconds, after which time they will be asked to rehearse these for a period of 25 seconds. After that time they will then be asked to write out as many as possible in the correct order (if the trigram is BHD then the participant must write BHD, no mark will be given for BDH). The results will then be recorded.  The same set of trigrams will then be shown to a different set of participants for the same amount of time. This time however during the 25 seconds rehearsal time, the participants will be asked to perform an interference task, which will be counting backwards in sets of 4 from the number 295. After the 25 seconds, they too will be asked to recall the trigram list and their results will also be recorded.

Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre :: essays research papers

Charlotte Bronte makes use of nature imagery throughout "Jane Eyre," and comments on both the human relationship with the outdoors and human nature. The Oxford Reference Dictionary defines "nature" as "1. the phenomena of the physical world as a whole . . . 2. a thing's essential qualities; a person's or animal's innate character . . . 4. vital force, functions, or needs." We will see how "Jane Eyre" comments on all of these. Several natural themes run through the novel, one of which is the image of a stormy sea. After Jane saves Rochester's life, she gives us the following metaphor of their relationship: "Till morning dawned I was tossed on a buoyant but unquiet sea . . . I thought sometimes I saw beyond its wild waters a shore . . . now and then a freshening gale, wakened by hope, bore my spirit triumphantly towards the bourne: but . . . a counteracting breeze blew off land, and continually drove me back." The gale is all the forces that prevent Jane's union with Rochester. Later, Bront†°, whether it be intentional or not, conjures up the image of a buoyant sea when Rochester says of Jane: "Your habitual expression in those days, Jane, was . . . not buoyant." In fact, it is this buoyancy of Jane's relationship with Rochester that keeps Jane afloat at her time of crisis in the heath: "Why do I struggle to retain a valueless life? Because I know, or believe, Mr. Rochester is living." Another recurrent image is Bront†°'s treatment of Birds. We first witness Jane's fascination when she reads Bewick's History of British Birds as a child. She reads of "death-white realms" and "'the solitary rocks and promontories'" of sea-fowl. We quickly see how Jane identifies with the bird. For her it is a form of escape, the idea of flying above the toils of every day life. Several times the narrator talks of feeding birds crumbs. Perhaps Bront†° is telling us that this idea of escape is no more than a fantasy -- one cannot escape when one must return for basic sustenance. The link between Jane and birds is strengthened by the way Bront†° adumbrates poor nutrition at Lowood through a bird who is described as "a little hungry robin." Bront†° brings the buoyant sea theme and the bird theme together in the passage describing the first painting of Jane's that Rochester examines. This painting depicts a turbulent sea with a sunken ship, and on the mast perches a cormorant with a gold bracelet in its mouth, apparently taken from a drowning body.

System Analysis and Design Life Cycle Essay

There are nine parts to the system analysis and design life cycle. The first three stages are about gathering information. The first part of the cycle is initiation. This is when someone identifies a need or an opportunity. The second part of the cycle is the system concept development, which defines the scope or the boundary of the concepts. Next is the planning stage. During this stage the project management plan and other planning documentation is developed. This will be the basis for acquiring the resources needed to achieve a solution. The next three stages are about the actual design. The fourth stage is the requirements analysis. This is where the functional requirements document is created in which user needs are analyzed and user requirements are developed. The fifth stage, which is self-explanatory, is the design stage. This is where the systems design documents are created from the detailed requirements, focusing on how to deliver the required functionality. The sixth stage is the development stage. This is the part where the design is transformed into a complete information system. The final three stages are where everything comes together. During the integration and testing stage the developed system are tested to see if they perform as designed. Stage eight is implementation. This includes the implementation preparation and the implementation of the system into a production environment and the solution to any of the problems found in the integration and testing stage. Everything being discovered has a system in place. Following the steps above, with a little tweaking toward our goal, gives us a template to develop a successful database. When I type â€Å"Resolution Analysis† into the search bar, I get heading such as â€Å"Requirements Analysis – Software To Track All Requirements†, â€Å"Amazon.com: Getting It Right: Business Requirement Analysis Tools†, â€Å"Exploring Alternatives During Requirements An alysis†, and â€Å"Sociotechnical Requirements Analysis for Clinical Systems†.

Improve Maternal Health Essay

The World Health Organization defines maternal health as â€Å"the health condition of women during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period that needs to be safeguarded to prevent death† (http://www. who. int/topics/maternal_health/en/). Improving maternal health is one of the concerns of the Millennium Development Goals with focus on reducing maternal mortality and achieving universal access to reproductive health care by the year 2015. In 2008, sixty-eight (68) developing countries account for the majority of the maternal and child mortality. In the same year, the World Health Organization reported that some of the countries where maternal health is of prime importance and is given high importance include Norway, Australia, Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark and other developed countries. On the other hand, many developing countries are left behind in terms of giving importance or even appreciation to maternal health such as Afghanistan, Yemen, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Congo and other Southeast Asian countries. Poor maternal health adversely affects women. The World Health Organization reported that almost 500,000 women die of childbirth and pregnancy every year due to complications brought about by childbearing. Most of these women die due to unavailability of maternal health services and emergency assistance. It is the woman and her child that is always at risk when maternal health is not of top priority of a government. A woman and her child will always be exposed to infection and other forms of diseases when they are not given proper knowledge and skills in maternal health.

How to Start Writing When You Dont Feel Like It

How to Start Writing When You Dont Feel Like It How to Start Writing When You Dont Feel Like It How to Start Writing When You Dont Feel Like It By Michael As a professional editor and copywriter, my biggest problem with clients is not that I get poorly written material from them. Oh no, not by a long shot. My biggest problem is I dont get anything from them at all. I dont mind the grammar or spelling or punctuation mistakes that my clients make. I just want them to write something. Theyre the experts on the subject, not me. My job is to edit and rewrite. But as long as their wisdom is bottled up in their heads, I cant do my job. If you care about something, you can probably talk about it, if you can talk at all. The strong silent types might need a little extra help. But the rest of us just need to prime the pump, to get the words flowing and the wisdom pouring. If your hours in the English classroom has left you with a chronic writers block (a problem which is almost epidemic), then learn to write differently. When writing is hard for you, how can you get started? Write about what you care about, and write to someone who cares. If you have to write about your business but cant get started, pretend your husband wants to know what you do for a living. Write an email or write a letter to him. If youre writing a paper for school, imagine that your teacher is really interested in reading every word you write. Too much to imagine? Pretend that youre writing an article for your favorite magazine. Or pretend youre writing to your grandmother or your best friend or your long-lost childhood friend. If you cant find someone who cares about what you have to say, imagine someone who does care. For example, I care. Dont you feel better already? If the thought of writing an email or letter still makes your words bottle up, make a phone call. Leave a long answering machine message for yourself, and then type up what you said. Call a friend and have them take notes while you talk. Anything to let the words loose. You may not be impressed with what comes out. But the sooner you get your wisdom out of your head and into your fingers or onto paper, the sooner you can make it better. No chance of improvement until you start. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Words for Facial Expressions"Confused With" and "Confused About""To Tide You Over"

101 Compare and Contrast Essay Ideas for Students

101 Compare and Contrast Essay Ideas for Students Compare and contrast essays are taught in school for many reasons. For one thing, they are relatively easy to teach, understand, and format. Students can typically understand the structure with just a short amount of instruction. In addition, these essays allow students develop critical thinking skills to approach a variety of topics. Brainstorming Tip One fun way to get students started brainstorming their compare and contrast essays is to create a Venn diagram, where the overlapping sections of the circle contain similarities and the non-overlapping areas contain the differing traits. Following is a list of 101 topics for compare and contrast essays that you are welcome to use in your classroom. As you look through the list you will see that some items are academic in nature while others are included for interest-building and fun writing activities. Apple vs. MicrosoftCoke vs. PepsiRenaissance Art vs. Baroque ArtAntebellum Era vs. Reconstruction Era in American HistoryChildhood vs. AdulthoodStar Wars vs. Star TrekBiology vs. ChemistryAstrology vs. AstronomyAmerican Government vs. British Government (or any world government)Fruits vs. VegetablesDogs vs. CatsEgo vs. SuperegoChristianity vs. Judaism (or any world religion)Republican vs. DemocratMonarchy vs. PresidencyUS President vs. UK Prime MinisterJazz vs. Classical MusicRed vs. White (or any two colors)Soccer vs. FootballNorth vs. South Before the Civil WarNew England Colonies vs. Middle Colonies OR vs. Southern ColoniesCash vs. Credit CardsSam vs. Frodo BagginsGandalf vs. DumbledoreFred vs. ShaggyRap vs. PopArticles of Confederation vs. U.S. ConstitutionHenry VIII vs. King Louis XIVStocks vs. BondsMonopolies vs. OligopoliesCommunism vs. CapitalismSocialism vs. CapitalismDiesel vs. PetroleumNuclear Power vs. Solar PowerSaltwater Fish vs. Freshwater FishSquids vs. OctopusMammals vs. Reptiles Baleen vs. Toothed WhalesSeals vs. Sea LionsCrocodiles vs. AlligatorsBats vs. BirdsOven vs. MicrowaveGreek vs. Roman MythologyChinese vs. JapaneseComedy vs. DramaRenting vs. OwningMozart vs. BeethovenOnline vs. Traditional EducationNorth vs. South PoleWatercolor vs. Oil1984 vs. Fahrenheit 451Emily Dickinson vs. Samuel Taylor ColeridgeW.E.B. DuBois vs. Booker T. WashingtonStrawberries vs. ApplesAirplanes vs. HelicoptersHitler vs. NapoleonRoman Empire vs. British EmpirePaper vs. PlasticItaly vs. SpainBaseball vs. CricketJefferson vs. AdamsThoroughbreds vs. ClydesdalesSpiders vs. ScorpionsNorthern Hemisphere vs. Southern HemisphereHobbes vs. LockeFriends vs. FamilyDried Fruit vs. FreshPorcelain vs. GlassModern Dance vs. Ballroom DancingAmerican Idol vs. The VoiceReality TV vs. SitcomsPicard vs. KirkBooks vs. MoviesMagazines vs. Comic BooksAntique vs. NewPublic vs. Private TransportationEmail vs. LettersFacebook vs. TwitterCoffee vs. an Energy DrinkToads vs. FrogsProfit vs. Non-ProfitBoy s vs. Girls Birds vs. DinosaursHigh School vs. CollegeChamberlain vs. ChurchillOffense vs. DefenseJordan vs. BryantHarry vs. DracoRoses vs. CarnationsPoetry vs. ProseFiction vs. NonfictionLions vs. TigersVampires vs. WerewolvesLollipops vs. popsiclesSummer vs. WinterRecycling vs. LandfillMotorcycle vs. BicycleHalogen vs. IncandescentNewton vs. Einstein. Go on vacation vs. StaycationRock vs. Scissors

Ideal Body Image Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ideal Body Image - Article Example All people are different but generally speaking men and women are at odds about the perfect shape of a woman. Women are willing to go through various 'hardships' in order to lose weight and become skinny while men actually admit that they prefer curvier bodies. This is the dilemma that will be discussed in this article. [20] The society plays an integral part in shaping up a persons belief and sense of right and wrong. Unfortunately it is this very society that breeds insecurities and self-consciousness just because a person is a little different from the rest. The society has created a 'need' for women to get skinnier to remain socially acceptable. The ideal body today is, after all, several sizes smaller than what nature intended for most women. Marcia Hutchinson, a psychologist, says "We live in a culture where it's normal for women to feel we should be thinner, prettier, firmer, and younger, so it's normal for us to have body-image problems". [5] [6] [12] The portrayal of women in advertisements, dramas and movies are the real influence to the society's perceptions. A chubby woman seeing models like Jennifer Lopez or Kiera Knightly moving around gracefully in movies would feel put off when she compares herself to these models. The fact is since we are bombarded with so many images of thinness and perfection that women, regardless of their weight, are often unhappy with their bodies. They stand in front of their mirrors judging and comparing themselves, and they feel shamed because they feel fat. 'Their legs are too big, their breasts too small, their stomachs are too round'. They dislike the bodies they live in, and as a result, end up disliking the person who lives in that body. [4] [5] [6] [12] [17] [19] Cases of depression are widely known to be associated with a woman's feeling of being 'fat'. Discussing this problem with a family friend, she informed me that 'we just want to look good'. When I emphasized that she was smart looking, her face turned surly and she ended the conversation telling me that 'guys don't know anything!' This is just one case. There are plenty of women who fall into this category of wanting to 'just look good'. The fact is that women are more conscious about their weight than men are. There are way more fat weight-conscious women than fat weight-indifferent men. The study was done by Kristen Harrison, associate professor in Speech Communications, along with Laramie D. Taylor of the University of California at Davis, and Amy Lee Marske of Libertyville High School in Libertyville, exposed students on the campuses of two large Midwestern universities to slides of 'ideal body images', selected by a randomly chosen panel of students beforehand, for men and women separately. The conclusions derived from the study were that the ideal body for men was perceived to be big and muscular. To achieve such a body, men considered not eating anything not really a useful strategy. Harrison concluded that eating more makes the men feel a little bit better, and portray a more masculine image to other guys. [8] Further

How do quality management systems impact on revenue in the hospitality Research Paper

How do quality management systems impact on revenue in the hospitality industry - Research Paper Example It has been prophesied time and again by various scholars through various studies what Roberts found in 1996 â€Å"businesses who know and understand customers’ priorities for quality improvements can achieve a threefold increase in profitability† (Dale, 2003).This study has been carried out from the revenue generation context of quality systems implementation for hospitality industry. How the various elements of quality help in achieving the increased profitability needs to be analyzed. It is also important to see whether the concepts that help achieve visible improvements in manufacturing sector also produce profitability improvement worth the effort they involve in the hospitality sector or not. 2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 2.1. Research questions identified The major questions which this research aims to answer are - What is the impact of implementing quality management systems in hospitality industry? How do these systems impact the revenues? What are the efforts involved in implementing these systems and are the resources required to implement quality systems justified by the value of the revenues generated? 2.2. Research Aims and Research Objectives The aim of this study is to see how quality management systems impact revenue in the hospitality industry. Study objectives are as follows: 1. To study how quality management systems are implemented in hospitality industry – a general study of the companies. 2. To understand how the quality management systems impacted the parameters of financial performance (a study of the various parameters they impact as well as the means of this impact). 3. To measure the impact... This research paper shows that quality management systems have positive impact on revenues of hospitality industry. It has been observed that this has been achieved by improved market share, brand image, ROI and competitive positioning. However, some concerns regarding the impact of these systems on overall performance of the firms have been highlighted. One of the concerns is the sincerity of implementation of quality management systems within the firms. The industry leaders need to understand that they are the main drivers of change which these systems propose to bring about. Hence, a commitment of words or even documented commitment is not sufficient. The leadership team needs to be thoroughly involved in its implementation. They need to have a quality vision to help firms achieve both revenue and cost benefits. Half hearted efforts, especially in the industry of our study, have found to have a negative impact on operational performance. Our literature review has analyzed all the aspects related to the questions set out in the beginning of our study. Hospitality organizations implement quality management systems by applying for certifications like ISO 9000, etc. or by internal process improvement programs. Some companies in this sector were seen to implement Six Sigma methodologies to reap revenue benefits. Most of the successful organizations in this sector have implemented full computerization which helps the management in analyzing revenue versus cost factors.